Focusing on specific examples, describe the
way that modernist art and design was a response to the forces of modernity?
Although the term ‘modern’ relates
predominantly to the present day rather than to the past, when discussing the
modernist art movement it can also refer to the terms ‘modernity’ and
‘modernism’, which are hard terms to define.
Modernity relates specifically to the
significant progress within social culture and advances in technology, which
were made throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries during the period
of industrialisation and urbanisation; whereas the term ‘modernism’ is used in
reference to the art and design movement and refers to the range of styles and
ideas that emerged in direct response to modernity and the societal and
cultural progression made within this period.
The main aim of this essay is to discuss
and demonstrate how modernist art and design was a response to the forces of
modernity, which had come from the hugely significant changes that occurred during
urbanisation. It will also explore the origins of the modernist movement, and
define these forces in terms of its meaning and its relevance to the modernist
movement and by use specific examples from nineteenth century Paris, a ‘modern’
city which was extremely influential to the modernist movement and demonstrated
the effect the forces of modernity had upon modernist art and design.
Progression is a key theme that is closely
linked with the idea of modernity. In the period between 1750 and 1950, society
itself was experiencing a great deal of what could be termed progression in
that the modern world was transformed both for the better –in the developments
to production methods and social upheaval that arguably benefited ordinary
people- and for the worse –in the World Wars- that transformed the modern world
in ways people could not have imagined.
The main features of modernity are
urbanisation, denotes simply the physical growth of urban areas. Urbanisation
first occurred during the Industrial Revolution in the mid-eighteenth century
when people were attracted to urban areas from rural areas to work in the
factories, which in turn was due to the transition into new manufacturing
processes in industries such as cotton and textiles. This therefore caused the
urban area to grow in size to accommodate the influx of people. Due to the
advancement of factories and new production methods such as mass production,
the city was a magnet for those in the rural areas, especially for
working-class people who could find better-paid work in the cities than in
traditional agriculture and cottage industries.
These forces of modernity – urbanisation,
the city and mass production – are all key examples of the progression in
social culture within this period. The ideas and styles of the modernism
movement were a direct response to modernity and these forces.
Raymond Williams’ lecture ‘When was
Modernism?’ given at the University of Bristol in 1987 is a key text
relating to the definition of ‘modern’.
Williams defines ‘modern’ by discussing the origins of the term, which he
traces back the late sixteenth century. Within his lecture, Williams also
critically analyses the modernist movement and the significant changes in
social culture and cities due to urbanisation and industrialisation, which
occurred during the period and are commonly associated with the term ‘modern’.
Although Williams states the true etymology
of the term ‘modern’ as the late 16th Century, where it was
synonymous with the term ‘now’ or ‘present’; in terms of modernity and the
themes of the modernist movement, its origins are traced back to the 18th
century when the terms ‘modernize’, ‘modernism’ and ‘modernist’ where first
used.
“But her eighteenth – century
contemporaries used ‘modernize’, ‘modernism’ and ‘modernist’, without irony, to
indicate updating and improvement. In the nineteenth century it began to take
on a more favorable and progressive ring”
(Williams, 1987, p.23)
Williams’ above reference to the period of
the eighteenth century and nineteenth century of one of ‘improvement’ and
‘progression’ indicates the influence urbanisation had as a force of modernity.
Urbanisation was the key factor for the progression made within this period,
what eighteenth century modernists described as ‘modernism’ and ‘modernist’ was
the response made during this progression.
The importance of modernity upon modernism,
a key theme throughout Williams’ lecture and raised above, is also discussed in
Pam Meecham and Julie Sheldon’s ‘Modern Art: A Critical Introduction’.
[Referring to Modernism]
“It was, broadly speaking, the cultural
outcome of modernity, the social experience of living in the modern world”
(Meecham & Sheldon, 2000, p.2)
Similarly to Williams,
Meecham and Sheldon state that modernism was a direct outcome of modernity,
suggesting that modernists used their personal experience of living in the 19th
century referred to here as ‘modern world’ to influence the art and design they
produced.
[Referring to the nineteenth century]
“Very quickly, however ‘modern’ shifted from ‘now’ to ‘just now’ or even
‘then’ and for some time has been a designation always going into the past with
which ‘contemporary’ may be contrasted for its presentness”
(Williams, 1987, p.23)
The shift that Williams describes, relates
specifically to the modernist movement. In response to the forces of modernity,
the modernist movement centred upon the ‘new and improved’ philosophy. The
shift in the term ‘modern’ during the nineteenth century enabled modernists to
track this improvement and how far they have progressed by contrasting to the
past.
The progress made during the period of
urbanisation had an important effect on the social culture during the
nineteenth century due to the advances in technology and the transition into
the age of machinery in place of what were previously human tasks. This, in
turn, had an effect upon the experimental and revolutionary art and design
produced during the modernist movement.
“Any explanation of these changes and their ideological consequences
must start from the fact that the late nineteenth century was the occasion for
the greatest changes ever seen in the media, of cultural production,
photography, cinema, radio, television reproduction and recording all make
their decisive advances during the period identified as modernist”
(Williams, 1987, p.25)
Williams’ use of the word ‘advances’ in
reference to mediums such as photography and television again links to the
modernist theme of progression and indicates its effect upon most areas of
social culture.
Meecham and Sheldon suggest in ‘Modern
Art: A Critical Introduction’ that the ‘greatest ever changes’ discussed by
Williams were embraced by the modernists due to the association with
advancement, which is an aim of the modernism movement.
“Change, a dynamic constant in the modern
period, was embraced by those who would be modern, as a marker of advancement”
(Meecham & Sheldon, 2000, p.2)
Modernists embraced this advancement by
experimenting with pre-existing art forms to create something revolutionary.
The experimentation seen within modernist paintings was particularly in
response to the impending threat of photography as the new way to
document.
As well as having a significant influence
on the aesthetic of the modernist movement, urbanisation an influence on the
city, another force of modernity on becoming the site for the ‘modern’
experience.
“The media, the technological investments which mobilized them and the
cultural forms which both directed the investment and expressed its pre-occupations,
arose in the new metropolitan cities, the centres of the also imperialism which
offered themselves as transnational capitals of art without frontiers “
(Williams, 1987, p.25)
The ‘technological investments’, which
Williams cites as the serious influence on cities such as Paris and Berlin
achieving metropolis status, is a reference to the technological advancements
made in the period due to the investment or commitment to progression. The
descriptive ‘metropolitan’ Williams had given to the cities references the
growth and transformation of these urban areas into major cities.
A discussion of modernity and the changes
that occurred during this period to transform cities is also referenced within
Griselda Pollock’s ‘Modernity and the Spaces of Femininity’.
“Modernity stands for a myriad of responses
to the vast increase in population leading to the literature of the crowds and
masses, a speeding up of the pace of life with its attendant changes in the
sense and regulation of time and fostering that very modern phenomenon,
fashion, the shift in character of towns and cities”
(Pollock, 1988, p.129)
To describe the effect modernity had upon
modern life in the city, Pollock uses phrases such as ‘crowds and masses’ and
‘speeding up the pace of life’ which aide Williams’ use of the descriptive
‘metropolitan’.
“From Apollinaire and Joyce to Beckett and Ionesco, writers were
continuously moving to Paris, Vienna and Berlin, meeting their exiles from the
revolution coming the other way, bringing with them the manifestos of
post-revolutionary formation.”
(Williams, 1987, p.25)
One suggestion Williams makes for the
triumph of the modernist movement is the frequency of which influential modernists
such as Joyce, Apollinaire and Beckett travelled to metropolitan cities spread
the word of the modernism movement and the aims and ambitions of the
modernists.
In Stephen Bann’s ‘Ways Around Modernism’,
there is a particular emphasis on France and more specifically, Paris as the
site for the ‘modern’ experience during the nineteenth century.
“Nevertheless, there was a concentration on
the nineteenth century in France, especially the development of its art and
architecture”
(MacNamide, 2007, p.8)
As well as making some of the greatest
developments within technology during industrialisation, the city became
synonymous with the term modern and therefore had significant influence on art
and design of the modernist movement.
The impact industrialisation had upon the
France was significant to response made to the ‘modern’ philosophy, which
developed in the country and, more specifically, in the capital Paris.
During the nineteenth century whilst
industrialisation was growing, the country was experiencing a period of peace
and optimism known as the ‘Belle Epoque’ (Beautiful Era) due to the
developments marked by industrial progress.
Carried away by this happiness, French
society also began to evolve considering that Paris began to emerge as a major
capital for tourism.
The Moulin Rouge, which was co-founded by
Charles Zidler and Joseph Oller during this period, is a key example of the
shift in society as the dance hall, which was located in the Parisian district
of Montmarte known as the centre of “free-wheeling” allowed societies and
cultures to mix.
The dance hall became infamous for it’s
‘modern’ interpretation of the Can-Can, within its flamboyant shows which
aspired to challenge and provoke the audience, often the upper-class who were
considered to be ‘slumming it’ in
Montmarte.
This, in turn, had an effect on the design
produced for the Moulin Rouge, particularly by Henri De Toulouse Lautrec, who
was commissioned to design a vibrant poster to reflect the club and its
reputation.
Toulouse Lautrec’s first commission for the
dance hall, ‘La Goulue’ (Figure A) became an overnight success due to the
originality of his design, shown particularly in the simplicity of Lautrec’s
style compared to the text-heavy posters popular during this period.
The central image of the design is of
French can-can dancer Louise Weber, also known under the stage name La Goulue
who was renowned for her outrageous yet captivating behavior on stage, which
made her a favourite with crowds and Lautrec as a subject of his art. Lautrec
draws attention to the figure, a key symbol of the Moulin Rouge and its
reputation by his repetition of the club’s name to draw the eye down toward La
Goulue.
Trottoir Roullant’s electric moving walkway
is a specific example of Parisian history, which demonstrates the progression
made in technology in Paris during industrialisation and its effect upon modern
life.
Roullant’s electric moving walkway was part
of the Universal Exposition of 1900, which was an annual event that showcased
the achievements of the past century and aimed to continue this development
into the next. Roullant’s walkway was considered one of the “most famous marvels”
at the Universal Exposition due to the three-tiered walkway, which could
achieve speeds of five miles per hour being one of the first of its kind.
Throughout the Exposition, the key themes
were ‘electricity’ and ‘motion’, which not only applied to several of the
exhibitions but also the atmosphere of the event. These central themes,
particularly ‘motion’ demonstrates the influence that not only the Exposition
but also new technologies had on Paris as the bustling metropolis city it is
known as today.
Other exhibits at the Universal Exposition
that demonstrate the technological advancements made during the period were
films of extracts from emerging leisure activities such as the ballet and the
opera publicly using the projection of image and recorded sound for the first
time.
The advances in technology had a direct
impact upon pre-existing art forms that modernists began to experiment with
under the threat of new technologies. Absinthe Drinker, painted by Edgar
Degas (Figure B) is a specific example of the fine arts world’s response to the
impending threat of photography making painting redundant.
Degas’ painting depicts a typical scene in
which anybody on the street could run into, creating a similarity to a snapshot
from a camera. Degas’ interest in photography is also reflected in photographic
composition created by painting the scene on a diagonal angle.
Due to the advancement made in the field
during the period of urbanisation, photography became the way to document, as
it was able to capture more detail, information and was –for obvious reasons-
more realistic than a painting. Photography enabled the direct capture of the
light it was intended to document, rather than through the eyes of a middleman
who then interprets the light.
In response to this, Degas, who was
decidedly realist, created Absinthe Drinker as a realist painting and
stated he was not interested in creating a “pretty picture”. Degas carefully
composed his painting to create a scene of depicting real life by using real
people, actress Ellen Andree and artist Marcellin Desboutin as the models for
the figures in his painting. The Café in which the scene is set is also based
upon the real Parisian café, Café Da La Nouvelle Athenes.
Degas also creates an impression of realism
by representing the urban isolation of individuals in Paris. Degas portrays
this darker side to Parisian life by depicting isolation during the cities
period of growth, despite the two figures being in proximity to each other,
they are completely disconnected from each another, instead immersed in their
own isolation.
Haussmannisation, which occurred in Paris
between 1850 and 1870, is a specific illustration of the effect of
industrialisation and urbanisation on the ‘city’ as a force of modernity and as
the site for the modern experience.
Under the leadership of Napoleon III, who
believed in the industrialisation of Paris, Georges-Eugène Haussmann
instigated an ambitious plan to renovate the city by replacing the medieval
architecture and narrow, winding streets with large boulevards and new bridges.
The industrialisation of creating railroads and fitting gas lamps meant the
newly formed ‘bourgeoisie’ were able to enjoy their leisurely pursuits of
modern life such as visiting the opera house, one of the additions to Paris
under the Haussmann plan.
Haussmann’s renovation of Paris is strongly
linked with the modernist movement, particularly with the ‘better than before’
philosophy as Haussmann aimed to improve the medieval architecture of Paris
where narrow, winding streets prevented the flow of traffic and resulted in
poor and even unhealthy living conditions. The long, straight and wide
boulevards Haussmann designed to replace the narrow streets also link to the
‘functionality’ aspect of the modernist movement as they were easier to police.
This transformation of Paris by Haussmann
from a medieval city helped to shape it into the prominent capital it is today
and has had an impact on Parisian day-to-day life as it has “bound the city
together as a single structural entity”
It is obvious that the development of the
modern world had a profound effect on design as artists and designers responded
to the changes they saw in their everyday lives and the social and industrial
upheaval they witnessed in the world around them. Many modernists used their
personal experiences of living in the ‘modern’ world and through the
significant changes of urbanisation to influence the revolutionary design of
the modernist movement. The designs they produced was so revolutionary –especially
during the nineteenth century, a time of traditionalism- due to the aesthetic
experimentation and the advanced technology available to the modernists during
this period. The changes in culture and society
arguably created, advanced and inspired the modernism movement to keep pushing
the boundaries of what was society deemed acceptable and it could be argued
that perhaps one could not exist without the other—as modern world advanced, so
too did the modernism in art and design.
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